The Hellenistic Age

      The death of Alexander in 323 BCE marks the end of an era. It separates what historians call the Classical Age (480-323 BCE) from the Hellenistic Age (323-31 BCE). Greek culture began to travel from its home in the Aegean and, through conquest, became the common culture of all countries in the Near East. Teachers, soldiers, craftsmen, artists, writers, and merchants flooded out of Greece into the newly conquered lands to take advantage of the many opportunities for fame and fortune in the near East. Greek culture was so attractive that it significantly influenced every local society it met, especially the better-educated, urban populations of the Near East. Even when the Romans in turn conquered this area, Greek culture and language remained the common unifies until the coming of the Arabs, and much later, the Turks. Alexander founded more than 70 new cities, many of them named Alexandria. In these, and in the older cities of the Near East, we find typical Greek buildings: gymnasiums, theaters, stadiums, market buildings (the stoa), libraries, and temples. Everywhere, Greek became the language of the educated class, and Greek art and literature were appreciated as models of perfection to be imitated.
      Alexander's empire was divided into three kingdoms. One of Alexander's generals, Seleucus, took over the Asiatic part of his empire and established the Seleucid dynasty in the African portion of the Ptolemaic dynasty in the African portion of Alexander's empire (Egypt and eastern Lydia), the last ruler of the European portion, including Greece and Macedonia, and founded the Antigonid dynasty. Smaller kingdoms like Pergamon and Rhodes became involved in the feuds between the Hellenistic kingdoms. the results of these conflicts are part of the history of Rome, since Rome eventually conquered Pergamon and Rhodes and made them part of its empire by 31 BCE. Macedonia itself was humiliated and made a Roman province by 148 BCE.
      In the midst of this turbulent new era, most Greeks could find some degree of stability in the continuing role of the polis, their city. Most city-states maintained independence in their internal affairs, so the councils and assemblies continued to meet, local laws were passed, taxes were collected, and elections were held to fill the traditional offices. Democracy was the normal method of government on this level, but it was expensive to run a democracy. Gradually, wealthier citizens increased their power and the average citizen lost interest in participating in government by neighbours. One means by which the small powers like Macedonia and Pergamon was to form leagues. Two in particular, the Aetolian and the Achaean Leagues, expanded their membership beyond the regions of Central Greece and the Northern Peloponnese. Citizens of each league, or their representatives in the case of the Achaean League, met in large assemblies twice a year and decided matters of foreign policy and the military. In the end, however, none of the leagues could math the power of Rome.
     

Citizens, Slaves, and Foreigners

      Demetrius of Phaleron was appointed governor of Athens in 317 BCE. Shortly afterward, he took a census and learned that there were 21 000 citizens (counting men only) in the city, 10 000 metics (resident foreigners), and 400 000 slaves (including those who worked in the mines). Even if the number of slaves is exaggerated, the ratio of slaves to free men was unusually high.This was partly because of the number of people captured during the wars of Alexander and his successors, and partly because slave dealers were rescuing abandoned newborn babies. Athens was not a typical Greek city, but it does give us some idea of the rights that different classes of people had.
          Only men could be citizens, a legacy of their role in ancient warfare and law making. Women could not vote, hold office, or own property, but had protection within the family structure. Metics were obliged to pay taxes and contribute in other ways to the city, but like women, could not vote, hold offices, or own land. Slaves had no rights. Some were fortunate enough to gain their freedom from generous owners. To abuse, assault, or even kill a slave was not a crime, though it may have been frowned upon. for most slaves life must have been miserable. We learn from the plays of Menander, however, that slaves did find ways to co-exist with their masters. In the difficult conditions of the ancient world where the survival of the individual, the family, and the community was regularly threatened, the rights of the individual depended strictly on his or her importance to the community.

Writing: ECHOES from the past published by McGraw-Hill Ryderson Ltd.