Stability Through Education

      Education played a crucial role in the stability and continuity of ancient Egypt. All children, regardless of social class, received at least some education. One of the texts central to the education of Egypt's youth was Instructions in Wisdom, a moral and ethical guide.  One of the primary goals of the ancient Egyptian educational system was to ensure that the youth grew up to exhibit self-control an good manners, and be contributing members of society. By the age of fourteen, children were streamed into the careers of their parent,s with boys either joining their fathers in the filed or workshop, and girls learning from their mothers the proper way to run a household.
      The sons of priests, Pharaohs, and administrative families were educated in a more formal manner, but these classes also passed on the father's position. Literacy was if great importance in running the highly bureaucratic Egyptian society. Teaching children to read and write was a priority. Children learned two types of writing: the rewriting of existing poetry and prose, and business wiring. Business writing was required for the varied tasks that gave the scribe his rank and importance in society. Mathematics also received considerable attention in the curriculum. Overall, the Egyptian system of education was highly respected in the ancient world for its efforts at creating a well-rounded individual who could become a valuable member of society.

Science and Technology

      The conservatism and practicality of the Egyptians are also evident in their scientific and technical achievements. They created what was needed and refined it until it was practical and could be used efficiently. Examples of this very practical nature include the development of Egyptian writing, medicine, their techniques for preserving the dead for thousands of years, and a calendar that allowed the Egyptians to predict accurately the yearly flooding of the Nile.

Writing

      The ancient Egyptians' form of writing, known as hieroglyphics, dates back to the earliest periods of their history. It is though that the Egyptians likely borrowed from the Mesopotamians, who had developed cuneiform script -- a script that had evolved from a series of pictographs. The Mesopotamians developed a more comprehensive system of writing to replace pictographs, but Egyptian hieroglyphics retained their pictographic nature. By about 3100 BCE, the Egyptians had a fully developed written language that used a combination of ideaograms (symbols that express a whole word or idea) and pnograms (symbols that suggest a particular sound).
      At the time of the New Kingdom, there were about 700 hieroglyphs in common usage, of which about 100 remained strictly visual, while the rest were phonograms. The system of hieroglyphic writing, while aesthetically pleasing and well-suited to the adornment of temples and tombs, proved impractical for day-to-day use. From the earliest period, scribes adapted hieroglyphic symbols in order to create handwriting known as hieratic writing. This simplified form of hieroglphics was more suited to rapid writing using a brush on wood or a reed pen on papyrus. A further refinement of hieratic script ular script, came into use for secular matters such as letters, accounts, and record keeping.
      As ancient Egyptian civilization waned, hieroglyphics faded from use. The last recorded use of hieroglyphics is found on the Temple of Isis at Philae dating to 394 CE. By this time, hieroglyphics were a mysterious text used only by a few priests who kept their meaning secret. It was not until the nineteenth century when Jean Francois Champollion cracked the hieroglyphic code, that we were able to unlock the secrets of ancient Egyptian writing.

Medicine

      Names marked on Egyptian tombs clearly indicate that there were doctors in Egyptian society. Medicine was a literate profession, and medical knowledge was recorded from a very early date, the oldest text dating back to 2000 BCE. These accumulated texts were a mixture of observation, medical and surgical descriptions, diagnosis, and prescriptions. They contain medical knowledge, plus observations mingled with nonsense, magic, and religion. Some of the inaccuracies stem from an inadequate knowledge of anatomy and the belief that disease was imposed as a punishment by the gods.
      Some common medical problems that appear in the texts -- and can easily be verified by examination of mummies -- are worm infestations, arthritis, small pox, tuberculosis, and gallstones. The medicines concocted were made of beer, milk, oil, plants, herbs, and animal substances. Bandages, splints, and disinfectants were used and doctors usually treated and stitched open wounds.
      The texts comprised a sacred and unchangeable wisdom that was greater than the abilities of the doctors. This resulted in a stagnation of the development of medicine since no further research or modification was seen to be necessary. Resourcefulness and practicality were part of the Egyptians' mentality, as was the confining conservatism. They created the tools necessary to live a comfortable life in the Nile Valley.

Egypt's Legacy

      One of the great achievements of Egyptian culture was its longevity. For over two thousand years, Egypt remained a dominant political and cultural force in the Near East. In fact, its influence spread throughout the Mediterranean, helping to shape, first, Minoan culture and , later, the culture of mainland Greece. As one of the world's first civilizations and one of the earliest powers to dominate the eastern Mediterranean, Egypt played a critical role in the development of the Near East. Although conservative, the ancient Egyptians made significant advances in many fields, including art, architecture, and technology. In the end, although we may marvel at the pyramids and be intrigued by the tombs and treasures of the Pharaohs, we must not lose sight of the ancient Egyptians as a people. They had a rich and vibrant society whose costumes and traditions reflected their dependence on nature and their optimistic view of the afterlife.

Writing: ECHOES from the past, published by McGraw-Hill Ryderson Ltd. 

The Mummification Process

      A desire to preserve the body after death was central to Egyptian religion and beliefs about the afterlife. Egyptians expected that the afterlife would be spend enjoying the best that this life had to offer: fishing, hunting, feasting, sailing, and so on. There were two basic requirements for the afterlife: a body preserved in its lifelike form, and a supply of goods to last through eternity. Egyptians also believed that in death, their spiritual double, the ka, would reside near their body, and have the same needs -- food, clothing, perfume, furniture -- as their living body had.
      Mummification in Egypt probably began about 2400 BCE, and continued into the Greco-Roman period. Some of our best information came from the Greek historian Herodotus, who documented the process in 450 BCE. Preserving bodies became a fully developed craft with its own guild of practitioners. It was also a religious rite presided over by a priest who uttered chants and prayers while wearing a jackal mast to represent Anubis, the god of embalming.

How to Make a Mummy

1. The brain, considered useless, was removed through the nostrils with an iron hook and discarded. What could not be reached was dissolved by chemicals. 

2. The presiding priest turned the body onto its right side, made an incision on the left, and removed all the major organs except the heart. Because the heart was considered the seat of intelligence and the ka's bodily home, it was left in place. 

3. The liver, lungs, stomach and intestines were cleaned, then dried with a substance called natron. The organs were then placed in four separate canopic jars, usually made of limestone, calcite, or clay. The lid of each jar was shaped to look like one of Horus' four sons. (Natron, obtained from dried-up riverbeds, is a compound of four salts: sodium carbonate, sodium bicarbonate, sodium chloride, and sodium sulfate. It draws water out and creates a hostile environment for bacteria.)

4. The body was washed with wine and the cavity stuffed with different materials: linen, Nile mud, sawdust, or lichen, plus aromatic substances such as myrrh. It was covered with more natron and dried for up to 70 days.

5. Once dried, the body was washed in oils and spices; the mouth and nose were cleaned and stuffed with linen, and the eyelids were stuffed with small onions or linen pads. The body incision was closed and covered with a plate, sometimes gold. 

6. Finally, the body was wrapped in several layers of linen that had been coated with resins and oils. Amulets and jewelry were hidden amongst the layers. Towards the time of the Middle Kingdom, it was customary to place a mask over the face. usually the masks were made of cartonnage (papyrus or linen coated with plaster), or sometimes wood. Silver and gold were for royalty. 

Writing: ECHOES from the past, published by McGraw-Hill Ryderson Ltd.

Social Structure: Daily Life in Egypt

      History is often a record of the lives and exploits of the powerful and the wealthy. They won the battles; they built the tombs; they were the focus of society and reaped its benefits. understanding the life of the masses has, in recent years, become of greater concern to historians. Ethnohistory is a new and challenging field that combines various disciplines such as archaeology, anthropology, and historical studies to unearth a part of our past that has often been neglected. To do a civilization justice, we must look at all levels of society and all the elements that made up the daily lives and routines of all the people.
      They bountiful harvest that was collected annually in the Nile Valley and the security afforded by Egypt's relative isolation gave all Egyptians, regardless of their station in life, a comfortable existence. Recent studies of Egyptian daily life offer a fascinating perceptive on a lifestyle of well over 3000 years ago. This perspective was supplied by the wealth of funerary offerings found in the tombs: agricultural implements, domestic items, colorful and lively paintings, and small figurines engaged in all sorts of everyday activities.
      An artisan, merchant, trade, or a common labourer in ancient Egypt would have lived in a one storey mud-brick home that looked no different from the rest of the dusty yellow houses on the crowded street. These houses had four, square rooms with only window slits to ensure privacy and cool shelter from the hot midday sun. Furnishings would have been simple -- reed mats and cushions, sometimes a wooden chest or a table. This was home to an average ancient Egyptian.

Agriculture

      The Nile dictated everyone's life. At the beginning of the year, when the Nile flooded, dams and canals had to be maintained and repaired. As much of this valuable water as possible had to be retained for the time after the Nile had receded. The river also left behind fertile soil, and as soon as surveyors had marked out the land with ropes, laborers sowed the seeds. Grains such as barley and wheat, and vegetables such as onions, leeks, lettuce, radishes, gourds, melons, peas, and lentils grew well in these fertile areas. Planting did not take much time because the soil was usually soft and wet. Children and laborers drove herds of animals over the saturated earth to churn up the ground and stamp in the sees. During the rest of the growing season, the crops were cultivated and the livestock herded to the filed to graze. Then the tax collectors and scribes descended on the files to calculate the yield and assess taxes. The harvest would end up up in the landowner's kitchen, the town market, or given to the laborers as payment.

The structure of ancient Egyptian society. 

The Family

      The home was the refuge and gathering place for the family -- a place to wash the dust away and eat and sleep. Children were fed and dressed simply and allowed few extravagances. Mothers or elder sisters cared for the children until they were four to six years old, when they were sent off to be educated. Children would be taught either in a teaching room by a priest or by their father, who would pass on all he knew about his trade or occupation. 

The Role of Women

      Our knowledge of ancient Egyptian life comes mainly from tomb decorations, and this includes what we know about the role of women in Egyptian society. Women were generally well treated and enjoyed considerable legal rights compared with women in other ancient civilizations. At least in the theory, women shared the same legal rights as men, including the right to won and dispose of land and property, the right to seek a divorce, and the right to initiate a court case or serve as a witness. These legal rights allowed women to be economically independent. It appears that women'ts primary social role was in domestic life. The fact that female skin is colored yellow in wall paintings, rather than the much darker skin tones of men, may indicate that women led a sheltered life, out of the sun. In early tomb decorations, women are often missing from culturally important work. At times, their role seems purely decorative, since they are usually depicted in deal, slender and young form. Later, women were depicted much more often and in more elaborate clothing. Women did not hold important title,s had little political power, were usually illiterate, and were barred from intellectual and government life.

      While a woman's role in society at large was limited, the home was the wife's domain. In fact, the common title for a married woman in ancient Egypt was nebet per, meaning "the lady of the house." In the ancient book Institutions in Wisdom, Egyptian men are cautioned: 

Do not control your wife in her house, 

When you know she is efficient;

don't say to her: "Where is it? Get it!"

When she has put it in the right place.

Let your eye observe in silence,

Then you will recognize her skill. 

      Women took great pride in managing the household and raising their children. Although home, Egyptian women faced few restrictions in public. When going out, perhaps to visit the market, women were not required to wear any kind of covering over their faces as in some ancient cultures. At home, the baking of bread and brewing of beer, both for family consumption and as offerings to the dead, occupied much of a woman's time.
      Aside from the daily routine of running the household, a woman's main function in society was to bear and raise children. Children were so important to the ancient Egyptians that early marriages were encourages so women could have children while they were young. Infertility was dreaded. A woman who was unable to conceive would make peas to the gods and goddesses of fertility and childbirth: Bes, Taweret, and, especially, Hathor. Women would resort to spells, amulets, and herbal remedies in order to conceive. For couples who were, despite their best efforts, unable to bear children adopting a child was considered the proper course of action. Despite their general love of children, there were occasions when pregnancy was not wanted, and ancient Egyptian recipes for contraception appear to have had some effectiveness.

The Role of Men

      The husband was the head of the family and passes on the inheritance to his children. Marriage property was agreed upon by a marriage settlement, and did not necessarily follow a rigid pattern. Men were not restricted in the number of wives they could have, but economics usually dictated that one man took only one wife. The priests also exerted a powerful moral influence, and although harems and concubines existed, sexual excesses were not evident in everyday social life. The man of the household was the laborer, the craftsperson, or the official. Since the father was the holder of the office or the occupation, he passed this on the his sons. It took many generations to acquire the skills and secrets of a trade, and sons were expected to continue the tradition. Change was not encouraged, because this involved risk.

Clothing of the Commoner

      A day in the fields would begin early, making use of the cooler hours. The laborer wore as little as possible -- a pleated or knotted  loincloth made of very light material or, perhaps, nothing at all. Workers may have worn wigs to protect their heads from the sun. Children and servant girls often wore only an amulet around their neck or a string of beads around their waist. The women wore long, close-fitting robes made of a light, almost transparent linen that was easy to clean and good protection against the heat. Among the commoners, going barefoot was preferable.

Foods and Festivals

      The fall season was a time for festivals since food had been assured until the next year. The people were relived of their agricultural duties, and were now involved in community jobs such as building temples and tombs. Festivals were joyous occasions for young and old, rich and poor. Reasons for celebrating included religious festivals, political events, and butchering of an ox, or the end of a successful hunt in the marshes.

      A banquet or a festival required preparation. The room was decorated with flowers and perfumed, the food was prepared, and the entertainment arranged. The kitchen would be full of servants busily preparing the festival fare: a freshly slaughtered ox; an assortment of roasted or boiled game, such as wild goat, gazelle, quail, duck, and fish; and vegetables that were in seasons, such as leeks, melons, onion, beans, chickpeas, lettuce, and radishes. Seasonings for the meat and vegetables would include garlic, onions, beer, milk, and wine. There would also be a wide selection of while and cultivated fruits, among these grapes, figs, dates, and pomegranates. Pastries and cakes were shaped and decorated with preserves and sweetened with honey. The guests could help themselves directly from the heaping plates placed on tables or offered to them by servants. Food was eaten using many different types of bread to clean up the plate. 

Clothing and Jewelry of the Upper Classes

      A love of functional ornament was obvious in the clothing of the wealthier Egyptians -- it was practical yet elegant. Their jewelry was a means of personal expression. The sophistication in dress and jewelry increased with the importance of rank or family. 

     Men wore a loincloth, just as did the lower classes, but covered it will a full linen tunic with sleeves, secured with an elegant belt. Although sandals were not very comfortable, they were also indicative of aristocratic stature. To insult their enemies, Pharaohs often wore pictures of them on the soles of their shoes.

     The women wore clothing similar to that of the women of the lower classes, but the cloth was finer and decorated with lively patterns and bright colors. The finest, softest cloth was, of course, kept for the queen. Jewelry could actually reflect a break from traditional Egyptian art because jewelers were less bound by convention and rules than other artists. Their work demonstrates a skill that has never been surpasses. Using gold, silver, agate, jasper, garnet, amethyst, and turquoise in fanciful engraved or twisted forms, the Egyptians fashioned exquisite accent pieces. This jewelry was stoed in finely crafted boxes of ivory or wood covered in gold.

Cosmetics

      Beside the jewelry box was another box of materials and utensils needed to apply cremes and make-up. Fashionable eyes were almond shaped, with eyebrows and eyelids made up in blue, green, or dark grey. Men and women applied this heavy make-up for two reasons: beauty and protection from dust, infection, and the glare of the sun and sand. Women smoothed a red, fat-based paint over their lips, and after bathing -- which was done frequently -- they applied perfume. The barber would come during this time to shave men's heads, because short hair was much easier to keep clean and more comfortable in the confines of their own homes. Wigs worn in public would be made from real hair or dyed black wool. The women wore shoulder-length hair that was braided and usually ornamented with a band or jewelry.  

Writing: ECHOES from the past, published by McGraw-Hill Ryerson. Ltd

Continuity And Conventions In Egyptian Art

      The art of the ancient Egyptians reveals a very conservative people. Conservatism was one of three key factors that shaped Egyptian art. The other two were virtually all art was produced for religious purposes, and that the Pharaoh was the chief patron and subject of the arts. Egyptian art was not innovative, but sought to remain unchanged by following traditions established during the Old Kingdom. The resistance to change inherent in Egyptian art reflects a quest for permanence achieved through conventions and idealizations. The fact that Egyptian art followed these conventions, remaining nearly unchanged for over three thousand years, is in itself impressive. Art, for the Egyptians, served to capture for eternity the ideal form of the individual represented.

Sculpture

      The most majestic works of art produced by the Egyptians were their statues. Egyptian sculpture ranged in size from small models to colossal statues such as the Sphinx (20 m high and 73 m long) and the statues of Ramses II (20 m high). Egyptian statues generally looked straight ahead and were not engaged in any activity; they are rigid and without emotion. While Egyptian sculpture may not have had the lifelike qualities of later Greek statues, it did capture the grandeur of the Pharaohs for all time. 

Carved Relief and Painting

      The artistic forms commonly found in the tombs of the Pharaohs and the nobility are reliefs and wall paintings. Both served a similar purpose: to convey to the gods the character of the deceased, or to illustrate the activities to be enjoyed in the afterlife. Carved reliefs are pictures that are cut into stone. Paintings were generally considered second best, and were usually done in tombs where poor rock surfaces made relief work difficult. In some cases, paintings were selected over reliefs because they were less costly and time consuming. 

      Egyptian artists were not particularly concerned with perspective. Instead, they produced mathematically precise paintings and reliefs that conveyed the necessary information. Realism was the least of the artist's concerns. Aside from the contrived stance and the disproportionate size of the figures, Egyptian paintings show many other examples of how information took precedence over realism. For example, Egyptian artist often used what is called false transparency. In a picture showing a side view of someone dipping a ladle into a pot, the viewer would not be able to see what is it the pot or the ladle. The Egyptian artist made both the contents and the ladle visible -- as if the pot were made of glass -- to provide necessary information. 

      It is important to view Egyptian art from the Egyptians' perspective, not ours. The task set before the ancient Egyptian artist was to capture for eternity the essence and character of the deceased. In this conservative society, artists were not supposed to be innovators. 

Writing: ECHOES from the past, published by McGraw-Hill Ryderson Ltd.

Intellectual Life

      The Egyptians had a very complex explanation for their existence. Aside from the physical body, each individual had a ka, ba, and akh. According to Egyptian beliefs, infants were placed in the other's womb after being created on a potter's wheel by the god Khnum. For each human crafted, Khnum also made a spiritual duplicate. This was called the ka. The ka was stored in the heart, and at death, was separated from the body. It would inhabit the tomb of the individual to be near the body in which it had spent its life. Like the livign body from which it had come, the ka would need items such as food, clothing, perfume, and furniture.
      The ba was a non-physical element unique to each person. It entered the body at the time of birth and left the body at death. The ba is best described as a person's character or personality, and was depicted as a human-headed bird. When someone died, his or her mummy needed to be transformed into a form that could exist in the afterworld. This form was called the akh. The transformation took place through the use of magical spell said over the mummy.
      A concept central to Egyptian religion was that of Ma'at. This was essentially order, truth, and justice -- at the time of creation. Only by living in accordance with Ma'at could the Egyptians achieve harmony with the gods and be assured entry into the hereafter.

The Afterlife

      The Egyptian concept of the afterlife is a reflection of their zeal for life and their optimistic outlook. The Egyptians saw the afterlife as a duplication of the best moments on Earth. They expected that, in their afterlife, they would be engaged in the activities they enjoyed most, such as fishing, hunting, feasting, and sailing. Death to the Egyptians was not an end, but a beginning.
      The concept of an afterlife was common to all Egyptians regardless of their social status. The preparation for the afterlife varied considerably depending on whether the individual was royal, noble, or a peasant. For all, however, there were two basic requirements. First, the body must be preserved in a lifelike form; second, the deceased must be provided with the items necessary for a life in the hereafter. The goods provided ranged from the few simple possessions of a peasant to the elaborate storehouse of treasures that accompanied the kings and queens. Royal tombs commonly held large food supplies, furniture, tools, weapons, chest full of clothes, jewelry, and game.s All Egyptian, whether rich or poor, believed that the essence of the deceased continued to be tied to this world even after death. This essence, or the ka, returned via the preserved body and received its sustenance from the food, drink, and material possessions left in the tomb.

Egyptian Burial Practices

      Central to Egyptian religious beliefs was the need to preserve the body. It is likely that mummification was a stage in the development of Egyptian burial practices. The earliest people to settle in the Nile Valley buried their dead in pit-graves dug in the hot desert sands bordering Egypt. The rainless climate and dryness of the sand around the body caused a natural process of desiccation whereby the body fluids were absorbed by the sand, preventing the body from decaying.
      As Egyptian burials became more elaborate, the body of the deceased came to be placed in a lined tomb. Since the bodies were no longer covered by sand, desiccation did not occur naturally and the bodies decomposed. As a consequence, the Egyptians developed an artificial means to duplicate what had previously happened naturally -- mummification. Initially, the Egyptians simply wrapped the body of the deceased in resins-soaked linens to preserve a lifelike form. Eventually, a more elaborate process was devised that enabled them to prevent the body from decaying. This process was lengthy and expensive and, therefore, the special reserve of royalty and the nobility. Peasants continued to rely on the natural desiccation that occurred when the deceased were buried in pit-graves in the sand.

An Egyptian Funeral

      The funerals of Egypt's elite were lengthy and elaborate affairs. When someone died, a period of loud mourning took place.The female relatives of the deceased, as well as paid mourners, would bare their breasts and walk through the streets crying out in grief. They would be followed by male relatives who were also bare to the waist and pounding their chests in sorrow. Later, there would be a more composed procession in which the body was transferred from the home to the embalmers where the mummification took place. This process took about 70 days to complete. Once the process of mummification was completed, the mummy was returned to the family and the final procession to the tomb would begin. In this procession, the mummy was placed on a sledge drawn boy oxen. A second sledge followed, carrying the canopic jars containing the deceased's preserved internal organs. At the rear of the procession, were the servants who carried objects the deceased would need in the afterlife. Upon arrival at the tomb, a priest would touch the mummy's eyes, and the grave goods were lowered into place through the roof since there was no entrance. Once everything was in place, the entire structure was roofed over. Some tombs were massive and elaborate structures designed to imitate palace facades. Later tombs for royalty were surrounded by smaller tombs containing the bodies of followers, and, possibly, mortuary chapels, where offerings were brought.
      By the beginning of the Old Kingdom, Egyptian kings were assumed to be the living embodiment of Horus, the son of the god Osiris. Obviously, a person of such stature had to be laid to rest in a tomb that reflected this status. Thus, the pyramid evolved. The choice of the pyramid shape may have been an attempt to re-create the primeval mound the Egyptians believed had emerged from the waters of chaos at the time of creation. Over 40 pyramids have been discovered in Egypt, mostly from the Old Kingdom, although some from the end of the Middle Kingdom and the New Kingdom have also been found.
      The earliest pyramids were, in fact, a series of mastabas (oblong tombs) stacked one on top of the other. The famous Step Pyramid at Saqqara, built form King Djoser, began as a single mastaba on which five additional mastabas, descending in size, were placed. Customarily, the burial chamber of the king remained underground.
      Pyramid construction reached its climax with the building of King Khufu's tomb at Giza. Known as the Great Pyramid, this structure rose 146 m and had sides 238 m long. In total, the base of the Great Pyramid covers six hectares. It is constructed of 2.5 million stone blocks, each weighing on average 2.5t. This remains the largest stone structure in the world. Construction was completed during the 23 years of Khufu's reign, without the aid of the wheel, lifting devices, or draft animals.
      By the time of the New Kingdom, the Pharaohs had come to realize that building massive pyramids was a mistake. Nothing better advertised to grave robbers where a deceased Pharaoh and his riches could be found than these monuments rising majestically from the desert. In hopes of eternal security, the Pharaohs of the New Kingdom chose two quiet, hidden valleys they believed would be safe from robbers. These valleys near Luxor we now call the Valley of the Kings and the Valley of the Queens.
     Here, the Pharaohs had elaborate tombs cut deep into the valley walls. The tombs had high corridors brightly painted with inscriptions from various religious texts such as the Book of What is in the Underworld. These corridors led to burial chambers and side chambers that contained the royal grave goods. The burial chamber was covered with scenes from the life of the deceased, designed to convince the gods that he or she had led a good life in accordance with Ma'at. The ceiling of the burial chamber was often covered with a map of the heavens.

Temples

Not all of the Egyptians' time and effort went into building tombs for the Pharaohs. A great deal of time was devoted to the construction of temples dedicated to the gods. These massive structures, usually made of sandstone, were designed to be experienced from the inside during a ceremony -- not as a means to decorate the landscape. All Egyptian temples had the same basic features: a monumental gateway, a roofless colonnaded court, a great hall with a ceiling resting on massive sandstone columns, and a private sanctuary of the god. The massive temple was, in turn, part of an even larger complex that included living quarters, workshops, a school, a sacred pool, complexes contained all the necessary facilities to support a community dedicated to serving the god. The largest and most famous of these temples is the Temp of Amon at Karnak. In this temple, 134 pillars -- all displaying scenes of the king worshiping Amon -- stand like a forest. 

Writing: ECHOES from the past, published by McGraw-Hill Ryderson Ltd. 

Egyptian Military Traditions

      By the time of Tuthmosis III, Egypt had earned a well-deserved reputation for having one of the best trained armies in the Near East. Ironically, the Egyptians were actually among the least warlike people of ancient times. The bounty of the Nile Valley provided for their needs, and the deserts on either side served as natural barriers to their enemies. The wealthy of ancient Egypt did, however, attract the attention of greedy neighbors who sought to seize control of the rich and fertile country. The success of the Hyksos invasion alerted the Egyptians to the need for a strong army to defend against future attacks. Fighting abroad was always viewed with anxiety, since nothing was more distressing to an Egyptian than the thought of dying away from home and being buried in a foreign land. Later in the New Kingdom, the powerful army did begin to expand Egypt's boundaries through conquests, but as in the past, mercenaries made up a significant part of the Egyptian army.
      The Egyptian army was a highly trained and disciplined fighting machine. With each military campaign, the Egyptians invoked the power of the goes to ensure their victory. Wars were fought with great pomp and ceremony, with trumpeters leading the army into battle. At the head of the attack was the Pharaoh's chariot, carrying a flag decorated with a ram's head and the sum, symbolic of the god Amon-Re.

Akhenaton's Challenge to Authority

In the midst of unparalleled wealth and power, the Egyptians faced an attempted religious revolution. Amonhotep IV, who changed his name to Akhenaton, concentrated his energies on reforming Egyptian religion. Akhenaton opposed the worhip of Amon-Re, traditionally the supreme god of the Egyptians. In place of Amon-Re, Akhenaton sponsored the worship of Aton. To promote the new cult, he took the name Akhenaton, meaning "he who serves Aton," and built a new capital city called Akhentaton *"Place of the Glory of Aton") far from the major urban centres of Egypt. Akhenton also had the temples of other gods closed and their possessions confiscated. These actions have since caused some to refer to Akhenaton as the first monotheist (believer in one god). This term is somewhat inaccurate since the Egyptian people were still expected to worship the Pharaoh while the royal family worshiped Aton. Akhenaton defined his new religion through hymns, some of which are preserved on the walls of tombs in the city he founded. Here is a sample of Akhenaton's writing:

Splendid you rise in heaven's lightland,

O living Aton, creator of life!

When you have dawned in eastern lightland,

You fill every land with your beauty. 

      Akhenaton's break with Egyptian traditions can also be seen in the art of his reign. Unlike other Pharaohs, who insisted on idealized representations of themselves, Akhenaton is portrayed with all of his human flaws: a slight pot-belly, and an oddly shaped head. There are also depictions of tender moments between Akhenaton and his wife and children -- scenes rare in Egyptian art.
      Akhenaton's preoccupation with reforming Egyptian religion left him little time to govern the empire built by his predecessors. In fact, once his new city was built, Akhenaton vowed never to leave it. In essence, he had refused to fill the traditional role of the Pharaoh -- leading the army into battle or attending to matters of the state that required him to travel outside his new city. By the time of his death the Egyptian empire was crumbling from neglect, and while still a dominant power, Egyptian civilization had begun its long decline.

Tutankhamun

      Tutankhamun came to power as a young child under the name Tutankhaton. It is likely that he was the son of Akhenaton and a minor wife. When Akhenaton died, the only surviving members of the royal family were two children, Tutankhaton and his half-sister Ankhesenpaton. A marriage of the two youngsters was hastily arranged, and the ten-year old Tutankhaton ascended to the throne. 

      It is unclear how big a role Tutankhaton played in the destruction of his father's new religion and the restoration of traditional beliefs. He may have been well aware of the strife that had befallen Egypt and, guided by his advisors, sought to restore stability by halting the religious revolution. He may also have simply accepted the dictates of his advisors, who either for the good of Egypt or for their own personal ambitions, sought to reverse Akhenatons' changes. 

      Within a few years of coming to the throne, Tutankhaton had changed his name to Tutankhamun, signalling a rejection of the cult of Aton and a return to traditional Egyptian religion. He also restored the priests and moved the capital of Egypt back from exile in Akhetaton to Thebes. Tutankhamun's short rule ended suddenly when he died from an apparent blow to the head at the age of eighteen. The sudden and unexpected death of the young Pharaoh created a problem, since the preparationg of a Pharaoh's tomb took many years to complete. Having no competed tomb in which to lay the mummy of Tutankhamun, a nearly completed tomb of a member of the nobility was used instead. This may explain why the tomb of King Tut, as he has come to be known, lay undisturbed until its dramatic discovery in 1922; perhaps grave robbers thought it was not worth the effort.

      Tutankhamun should be remembered as the Pharaoh who restored traditional Egyptian religion. As successor to Akhenaton, it was Tutankhamun and his advisors who destroyed the cult of Aton. He is, however, better known for the unsurpassed wealth found in his tomb. The treasures Howard Carter found in 1922 included gold inlaid furniture, lavish jewelry, and a solid-gold coffin.

Ramses II  

      By the time of Ramses II, 60 years after Tutankhamun, Egypt was in its twilight years. During his 67-year reign, Ramses II constructed more buildings and colossal statues than any other Egyptian king. Among his greatest monuments are the two huge temples at Abu Simbel. In the 1960s, these were the focus of a massive undertaking to save them from being submerged beneath the artificial lake that was created with the construction of the Aswan High Dam. The salvage operation involved dismantling the temple facades by cutting them into huge blocks and moving them 210 m away from the river. The operation took four years and cost $40 million. 

      Not long after the reign of Ramses II, Egypt was invaded and eventually fell under the rule of foreigners. During the next thousand years, Nubians, Assyrians, Persians, Greeks, and Romans would govern the state of Egypt. Despite being subjected to the rule of foreigners, the grandeur of Egypt has never been lost.

Writing: ECHOES from the past. published by McGraw-Hill Ryderson Ltd.

The New Kingdom

      Egyptian civilization reached its apex during the New Kingdom. It was during these five centuries that Egypt experienced its Golden Age, building an empire and producing fine works of art. The New Kingdom was also a period dominated by several larger-than-life characters.

Hatshepsut

From the reign of Menes to the arrival of Alexander the Great over 2700 years later, only four women ever ruled Egypt. Three of these women ruled only for a brief period while a dynastic crisis was being solved. The reign of Hatshepsut, who ruled in her own right for a significant period of time, is unique in the history of ancient Egypt. Given the very masculine nature of Egyptian kings, the small number of women rulers is not surprising. The king was believed to be the son of the god Re, and was associated with male symbols such as the bull. The queen was seen as the daughter of Re and was associated with the vulture-goddess. Consequently, the offices of the king and queen were complementary yet fundamentally different. They were not interchangeable, so the reign of any woman in Pharaonic Egypt was a significant departure from tradition. 

      Historians have called Hatshepsut the first powerful female leader. When her husband Tuthmosis II died, Hatsheput became regent for her young stepson. Tuthmosis III. Rather than govern in his name until he was old enough to assume the throne, Hatshpsut declared herself the female king of Egypt. Statues and paintings often show Hatshepsut wearing a beard to symbolize her power. The reign of Egypt's most famous woman has been described as a period of peace, stability, and prosperity. During her reign, Hatshepsut expanded trade, sending a trading mission to the country of Punt on the Red Sea (likely today's Somalia) from which Egypt received ebony, ivory, and incense. Hatshepsut also embarked on an ambitious building program that included her own massive tomb at Deir al-Bahari, and two huge obelisks at the Great Temple of Karnack, near Luxor. After ruling for nearly fifteen years, Hatshepsut was succeeded by the stepson whom she had earlier deposed. It is unclear whether Tuthnosis III waited until stepmother's death to reclaim the throne, or deposed her. What is clear is that some time near the end of his reign, Tuthmosis III ordered the removal of all references to and images of Hatshepsut from many monument,s and the smashing of statues that depicted her as king. Interestingly, her earlier images as queen in female dress and adornments went untouched. Was this an act of revenge, or was it simply an attempt to erase the uncomfortable fact of a woman assuming the role of a male king?

Queen Hatshepsut's Funerary Temple.

This enormous temple complex was built during her reign ca. 1470 BCE.

Tuthmosis III

As a young boy, Tuthmosis III inherited the throne of Egypt from his father, but the real power lay in the hands of his stepmother, Hatshepsut. By the time he assumed control of the throne, Tuthmosis III was his mid to late twenties. It would appear that he made wise use of his early years, training in the military -- he has even been referred to as the "Napoleon of Egypt," because of his many military campaigns. Much of the wealth of the New Kingdom came from tribute paid by the people subjugated during Tuthmosis III's conquests. Evidence of the tremendous wealth generated by Tuthmosis's successful conquests can be seen in the burst of building activity, both public and private, that  occurred during this period.

Continuity in Egyptian Religious Traditions

      In attempting to understand Egyptian culture and society, no factor is more significant than religion. The Egyptians were a deeply religious people for whom the sacred and the secular were inseparable. Religion was an integral part of all aspects of Egyptian life. 

      A society whose existence is closely linked to nature often shows a special reverence for it. The religion of early Egypt had its roots in the worship of nature deities, and the first gods to arise were frequently represented in animal form. In time, ideas, resulting in an interesting mix of human bodies and animal attributes. 

Myths and Legends in Ancient Egypt

      Like the Mesopotamians before them, the Egyptians considered those responsible for creation the most important gods. This is the case with most creation stories. According to Egyptian mythology, the earth was created when a primeval hill, the first solid matter, emerged from the waters of chaos. This was a natural assumption for ancient Egyptians, as they often aw islands of mud appearing in the Nile, or existing areas becoming islands during the annual inundation (floods). Atum, the creator-god, simply emerged standing on the first hill that rose from the water. He was "the perfect one: and self-begotten. He then ejected from his being Shu, the air, and Tefenet, the moisture. Next, he separated the sky from the earth and Geb, the earth, and Nut, the sky, came into being. Geb and Nut then joined and had children: the gods Osiris, Isis, Seth, and Nephtys. This group of deities formed the first unit in the divine hierarchy of gods. 

      National gods began to emerge during the Middle Kingdom. The most significant of these was Amon, the local god of Thebes and favoured god of the Theban kings. The other deities common to the Egyptians were the gods of the dead, including Osiris, Anubis, Horus, and Thoth.

Writing: ECHOES from the past, published by McGraw-Hill Ryderson Ltd.

The Middle Kindom

      The strong central government that had allowed Egypt to flourish, broke down at the end of the Old Kingdom period, as local and provincial officials became increasingly powerful. The resulting civil wars thrust Egypt into 150 years of anarchy, now referred to as the First Intermediate Period. By 2050 BCE, Egypt was reunited under Theban kings who would rule for the next 250 years. These monarchs initially ruled at Thebes and eventually moved their capital to Memphis. Theban supremacy was also reflected in the rise to national prominence of the god Amon. Amon had been a local Theban deity, but during the Middle Kingdom, he was merged with the Sun god Re to become Amon-Re, and Egyptian national god.
      Throughout the Middle Kingdom, the economic and political boundaries of Egypt were expanded. By encouraging social mobility through the promotion of members of the middle class, the rulers of the Middle Kingdom were able to curtail and ambitions of the local princes. As a result, Egypt experienced two centuries of peace and stability during which the nation prospered.

External Relations: The Hyksos Invasion 

      Egypt's success was to be punctured by the invasion of the Hyksos, a warlike people, most likely from the area of what is now Syria and Palestine. While the Egyptians were culturally equal or superior to any of the civilization of the Mediterranean, they lagged behind some in technological development. The Egyptian army, using copper weapons, was no match for the improved bows, horse-drawn chariots, and bronze weapons of the Hyksos. Although the method of conquest is uncertain, the superior technology of the Hyksos was surely a factor in their ability to take over the administration of Egypt. For 150 years, the Hyksos ruled Egypt using the existing infrastructure. In the end, the Egyptians came to master the new weapons, and drove the Hyksos out of Egypt. Egypt emerged for the Second Intermediate Period strengthened and revitalized.

The Role of Trade in Promoting Change

      By the time of the New Kingdom, Egypt was engaged in a vast trading network that centred on the Mediterranean Sea but reached as far as northern Europe, subtropical Africa, and the Near East. A dated to the fourteenth century BCE, has contributed greatly to our understanding of the cosmopolitan world of the late Bronze Age. The ship was discovered at Ulu Burun, off the coast of modern-day Turkey, by a Turkish sponge diver in 1982. The vessel was found to carry variety of items, including copper ingots from Cyprus, Mycenaean pottery from Greece, tin ingots from Asia Minor, amber beads from the Baltic, and glass and ivory from Syria. It is believed that ships such as this followed a circular pattern as they piled the waters of the Mediterranean. Setting out form Egypt, such a vessel would have traveled first to Syria and Palestine and then on to Cyprus, and Aegean Sea, and , occasionally, as far west as Sardinia, before heading back toward North Africa and Egypt.
      The interchange of such a variety of cultures had a far greater significance than the simple exchange of materiel goods. It was through trade that idea,s forms of artistic expression, technology, and building methods were spread. It is not surprising to find that the Egyptians owed much to the Mesopotamians for their concepts of mathematics and writing. Early Greek art and medicine owed a great deal to the Egyptians. The calendar we used today was derived from the Roman (Julian) calender, which was also borrowed from the Egyptians. Although Egypt was a conservative society in which change was slow, trade and the exchange of ideas ensured that Egyptian civilization did not remain completely static, but was always evolving.

Political Structures and Traditions

      Central to the development of Egypt's political institutions was the concept of the god-king. From relatively early in the history of ancient Egypt, the Pharaoh was believed to be the earthly embodiment of the god Horus, son of Osiris. To deny this would be to undercut the entire structure and basis of authority of Egyptian kings. The accepted partial divinity of the king allowed him to mediate between gods and people, perform the religious rituals central to Egyptian beliefs, and perhaps most importantly, to remain separate from his subjects and rule with divine right. Deriving power from the gods ensured considerable stability since there were few challengers to the king's authority, and the word of the king was seen to be divinely inspired. Despite the appearance of absolute power, the king was expected to rule over Egypt subject to Ma'at. Although pictured as a woman with ostrich feather, Ma'at was the goddess and symbol of the equilibrium of the universe. The king was expected to govern according to the principles of Ma'at, and to the precedents set by earlier kings. Kings attempting to alter society radically would be seen as destroying the equilibrium that was so important to the tradition-bound Egyptians; this could lead to a civil war or some other challenge to authority.

Succession

      To ensure the purest line of succession , a Pharaoh passed on the throne to the eldest son born of the Principal Queen, or Great Royal Wife. This was usually the eldest daughter of the previous king and, therefore, the sister of the ruling king. If the king and the Great Royal Wife had no son to inherit the throne, succession would pass to a son of a secondary wife, who would then legitimize his claim to the throne by marrying the Great Royal Daughter. This would be the daughter of the king and the Principal Queen, or, if they had no daughter, the Principal Queen herself -- the stepmother of the new king.
      The Pharaoh owned all the land of Egypt, the people, and their possessions. Any personal wealthy enjoyed by the Egyptian people was considered a result of the generosity of the king. Beneath the king was a hierarchy of government officials that advised him, enforced the laws, pleased to gods, oversaw the construction of the pyramids and oms, sought trade opportunities, and collected taxed. These civil servants were often rewarded well for their efforts, receiving grants of land and other valuable goods. Many top-ranking officials were quite wealthy and able to prepare fairly elaborate burial tombs for themselves.
      Among the most important of these government officials were the scribes who recorded the deeds of the Pharaohs, real or imagines and kept stock of supplies. The value of the scribes is reflected in the fact that, most often, a scribe filled the role of vizier, or prime minister to the king. The vizier served several important roles. First, and above all else, the viziers were the advisors to the king from whom they received their orders, and to whom they were directly responsible. Viziers were also responsible for overseeing the entire administration of government, and served as the head of the judiciary. Next to the king, the vizier was the most important government official in Egypt. Beneath the vizier, were a number of minor officials who collected taxed, supervised agriculture and the granaries, coordinated trading expeditions, oversaw the construction of public works (including the pyramids and later tombs of the Pharaohs), managed the justice system, and supervised matters of public health. by the time of the Old Kingdom, Egypt was already a complex, bureaucratic state in which a centralized government was vital to stability and prosperity.

Legal Traditions

      Egyptian law, like virtually all other areas of life, was governed by religious principles. The Egyptians believed that law was infused into the world by the gods at the time of creations. The goddess Ma'at personified the essential foundations of Egyptian law, which represented truth, righteousness, and justice. According to Ma'at, the goal of all people was to find and maintain the correct balance and order of the universe. This ideal seems to have been a central part of the lives of most Egyptians -- they were generally a very law-abiding people, who sought harmony and stability in their lives. As the head of the court of justice, the vizier was a priest of Ma'at, as were the officials who administered the judicial system.
      Generally, Egyptian laws were fair and humane compared with those of other ancient civilizations. They were also applied equally to all people, regardless of class or gender. The law emphasized protecting the family -- providing protection to children and wives, who could divorce their husbands or be guaranteed compensation should their husbands divorce them. The Egyptians had no codified body precedents (previous cases). Each Pharaoh strove to ensured that the laws applied were consistent with past practices.
      While the laws of Egypt were fair and equitably applied, punishments could often be quite severe. Two principles seem to have guided Egyptians in determining the appropriate punishment for a crime: that a severe punishment would act as a deterrent and that, in some cases, disgrace was more effective than death. Minor crimes were often punished with 100 lashes and forced labor in the mines and quarries. Escape attempts could lead to ears and noses being amputated. Men who raped a freeborn woman were castrated. Corrupt officials had their hands amputated, and those who released military secrets had their tongues cut out. For those who committed crimes punishable by death, there were several options for their execution. Some were devoured by crocodiles; those of high status were their parents had pieces of their flesh cut away, were placed on a bed of thorns, and burned alive. Parents who killed their children were forced to hold the dead child for three days and nights. Deserters from the army were publicly disgraced but could erase the humiliation by performing a courageous deed.

Economic Structure

      Ancient Egypt's economic system could best be described as a mixed system blending elements of a traditional economy, a market economy, and a command economy. Despite being a relatively simple economy based primarily on the annual production of staple foods, a complex system of trade developed. The Pharaoh retained absolute control over the means of production and the distribution of wealth. Egyptian prosperity and stability were dependent on abundant harvest and the ability to manage food supplied in order to survive years in which harvest declined. The abundance of good supplies -- not the size of the royal treasury -- was the measure of Egypt's wealth. Full granaries, plenty of wildlife and fish, and thriving herds were the signs of prosperous times. These were the images used in the tombs of the Pharaohs to illustrate the wealth of their reigns.
      Agricultural production was organized to provide a stable food supply for both the living and the dead. Any surplus was used in trade with neighboring peoples. An enormous amount of labor was needed to construct huge public works such as temples, royal tombs, and pyramids. Everyone could be asked to contribute to the Pharaoh's building projects, but officials, scribes, or artisans seldom were required to fulfill this role. Instead, the majority of labor came from Egypt's poor;this led to the creation of a class of serfs, who although not slaves, had little control over their own lives.
      Throughout nearly all of ancient Egypt, trade, both within the country and with neighbouring countries, was carried out through the barter system. Widespread use of coinage would not come until the time of the Romans. The Egyptians sold goods, paid salaries, collected taxes, and even paid interest on loans entirely through the exchange of goods. As trade became increasingly complex, they developed a refined system of barter, which used an arbitrary standard (initially wheat), against which all goods were measured and adjustments made when necessary. For example, a peasant wanting to purchase new pottery might offer some dried fish in exchange. If the potter demanded slightly more for the pottery than the fish, the difference could be made up with a small amount of wheat. After around 1580 BCE, the Egyptians used gold, silver, and copper as arbitrary standard, and introduced a system of weights and measures. Despite these developments, the use of coinage as a generally accepted medium of exchange would still be a thousand years away.
      Once of the features of ancient Egypt that contributed to the remarkable stability and continuity of the society was the passing of skilled trades from father to son. Few Egyptians grew up exploring a variety of career options. Instead, children would learn the trades of their parents, becoming skilled artisans who would then pass on the secrets of their trade to their children. Little is known about individual artisans, despite the numerous examples of fine sculpture, countless tomb paintings, and many impressive part, due to the system of production used in most trades. Artisans did not work independently; they were part of a team in a specialized workshop. Each item was produced in the workshop by several artisans who either worked together on the piece or passed it along the line. Complex works, such as furniture, were first designed by a master artisan, and then each part was crated and polished by other artisans before  completion. Similar organization was used in the building of monumental structures; master planners designed and supervised the building, while skilled artisans each contributed to the project by shaping building blocks, carving sculpture, or painting walls.

Writing: ECHOES from the Past publihed by McGraw-Hill Ryderson Ltd. 

The Old Kingdom

      Prior to 3100 BCE, Egypt was probably a collection of unorganized societies. Lower Egypt, or the Delta Kingdom, was ruled by a monarchy symbolized by the red crown; the white crown represented the power of Upper Egypt. The legendary King Menes is believed to have been the first to unite Egypt and wear the double crown symbolizing the unity of the two kingdoms. Between 3100 BCE and 2700 BCE, Menes and his heirs were able to consolidate their power and achieve absolute rule in Egypt. By the time of the Old Kingdom, the king was ruler of all of Egypt and considered a god. He was the supreme ruler of all affairs, secular and religious.

      The Old Kingdom reached its peak during the Fourth Dynasty ( a dynasty is a series of rulers belonging to the same family). By engaging in trade throughout much of the Mediterranean, and by mining copper in the Sinai Peninsula, the Egyptians acquired tremendous wealth in both material goods and new ideas. Timber from Syria, wine and oil from Crete, and the potter's wheel from Mesopotamian were all introduced to Egypt during the Old Kingdom. 

      The greatest symbols of the wealth of the Old Kingdom, however, were the three massive pyramids at Giza. Build between 2600 and 2500 BCE, these pyramids were the chief undertaking of the kings of the Fourth Dynasty -- Khufu (also known as Cheops), Khafre, and Menkure. To this day, these monumental structures stand as testimonials to the greatest of Egypt during the Old Kingdom. 

Imhotep: An Egyptian Genius

      Seldom were the lives and accomplishments of individuals other than Pharaohs recorded by the Egyptians. One worthy exception was Imhotep, a man whom historians have called a genius. Imhotep;s contributions to Egyptian society were so profound that he was essentially deified, and rose to serve at the right hand of the Pharaoh Djoser. Living during the reign of Djoser,in the Third Dynasty (ca. 2686-2613 BCE), the brilliant Imhotep was the first individual (non-ruler) whose life has been recorded and passed on through history. On a statue of Imhotep in the royal funeral complex, we see the extent of his titles and the roles he played. The inscription reads: "The Chancellor of the King of Lower Egypt, the first after the King of Upper Egypt, administrator of the great palace, hereditary lord, the High Priest of Heliopolis, Imhotep the builder, the sculptor, and the maker of stone vases."

      Evidently, Imhotep was all this and more. He was the founder of the Egyptian system of medicine -- highly regarded for hundreds of years as the best of the ancient world. He was also the architect who designed and supervised the construction of the word's first stone building, and the first pyramid (also made entirely of stone blocks). In fact, the Step Pyramid created by Imhotep for the Pharaoh Djoser was the embodiment of Egyptians religious beliefs -- it captured for eternity the majesty of Pharaonic Egypt. Imhotep;'s genius did not end with the creation of a huge and eternal tomb for the Pharaoh. Inside the tomb, Imhotep immortalized in stone every aspect of life within the royal palace at about 2650 BCE. From the furnishings of the palace and everyday goods such as straw baskets and metal pots, to the exploits of the Pharaoh, his family, and Imhotep himself, all were captured and frozen in time in carefully sculpted stone images. In the end, the Step Pyramid emerged as the first piece of monumental architecture created by an artist. Imhotep's vision was to create a tomb that use space and design to capture the essence of the life of a Pharaoh, not merely a place to hod his final remains.  

The Step Pyramids of Djoser, the first monumental architecture in Egypt, built ca. 2650 BCE. 

Writing: ECHOES from the Past publihed by McGraw-Hill Ryderson Ltd. 

Geography: Life on the Nile

The Nile Valley

There were several important geographic influences on Egyptian culture and civilization. The most important of these was the Nile River. The wealth of Egypt depended entirely on the water of the Nile, often referred to as the "gift of the Nile." Rainfall in the Nile Valley is negligible, and rainfall in the Nile Delta is only 100-200 mm per year. It was the flooding of the Nile upon which the fortunes of Egypt depended. 

      The waters of the Nile River come from the convergence of the White Nile and the Blue Nile. the Blue Nile, fed by the summer monsoons in Ethiopia, lead to the flooding of the Nile. This flooding occurs annually between July and October. The receding waters leave behind a rich alluvial soil, which makes the Nile River Valley a fertile and productive region. 

      Unlike other major rivers such as the Tigris and the Euphrates, which often underwent violent and unpredictable flooding, the Nile was usually a benevolent and predictable ally. The Egyptians were able to plan with some certainty the planting and harvesting of crops. If the water levels were higher than usual, however, serious damage could occur. Conversely, water levels that did not reach their usual heights could lead to drought and famine. The Nile was a force that the Egyptians both revered and feared. 

The Nile Delta and the Faiyum

      Aside from the Nile Valley, two other regions in Egypt were extensively cultivated  and settled. The area in which the Nile empties into the Mediterranean Sea is known as the Nile Delta. The Nile Delta is the largest area of fertile land in Egypt and, consequently, encompassed many of the major centres of ancient Egypt. Lake Moeris, which lies at the end of a branch of the Nile, is at the centre of an oasis known as the Faiyum. Through extensive irrigation, the ancient Egyptians were able to make the Faiyum the third largest area of settlement and agriculture in Egypt. 

Deserts and Egypt's Isolation

      Perhaps the greatest irony of Egypt is that the very lush and fertile Nile Valley is sandwiched between two inhospitable deserts, the Western Desert and the Eastern Desert. The isolation these desolate areas created protected Egypt from invasion, while also insulating Egyptians from outside influences. TI is hardly surprising that the civilization that developed was conservative and remarkable stable for most of its long history.

      The significance of the deserts went beyond their acting as a buffer against outside influences. They were important sources of minerals and building supplies, including copper, gold, tin, alabaster, limestone, amethyst, and matron, the drying agent used in the mummification process. 

The Mediterranean

      Another geographic feature that significantly shaped Egyptian history was the Mediterranean Sea, Egypt's major outlet for trade. The extensive trade routes that were established allowed Egypt to obtain a wide diversity of goods. Trade was also a key factor in the exchange of cultures. Once cannot help but notice the tremendous influence the Egyptians had on the architecture and art of the Greeks, especially the Minoans and Mycenaeans. 

Writing: ECHOES from the Past published by McGraw-Hill Ryderson Ltd. 

Gilgamesh and Enkidu: A Story of Epic Proportions

      Like all legends, the incredible story of Gilgamesh and Enkidu is built around a larger than life real personality. As in great epics, the saga has both historic and mythic elements. This legend has given historians, anthropologists and sociologists plenty to think about.
      Gilgamesh was a real king in Uruk in Babylonia and probably reigned about 2700 BCE. Many stories and myths surround him and endow him with beauty, strength, courage and an unsurpassed physical presence. Gilgamesh was said to be two-thirds divine and one-third human. He was revered for his accomplishments, yet his people complained and suffered under his overzealous leadership. Apparently, as king, Gilgamesh thought it was his right to control everything, even the right to sleep with any bride before the groom had a chance.
      The gods heard the people's moaning and so created Enkidu. Physically, he looked like Gilgamesh, but shorter and broader. Valiant and innocent, Enkidu lived among the animals before the people of Uruk discovered him. he was seduced into human contact by a temple courtesan and taught human ways. With his strength and good heart, Enkidu was seen as a good match for Gilgamesh, someone who could be a worthy companion and subdue the king's baser tendencies. Enkidu was taken to the home of a bride, where it was known Gilgamesh was to visit. Enkidu blocked the way and the two men wrestled and fought each other like bulls. Eventually, the fighting stopped. The two men embraced and began an epic friendship that would see them through several exciting and terrifying adventures.
      Unfortunately, in their exuberance, both Gilgamesh and Enkidu made the gods angry, and were punished by the killing of Enkidu, Humanized by his close relationship with Enkidu and grieving for his lost friend, Gilgamesh journeyed through the Underworld crying, "Death and life I wish to know".

Gilgamesh

Writing: ECHOES from the Past published by McGraw-Hill Ryderson Ltd.