The New Kingdom

      Egyptian civilization reached its apex during the New Kingdom. It was during these five centuries that Egypt experienced its Golden Age, building an empire and producing fine works of art. The New Kingdom was also a period dominated by several larger-than-life characters.

Hatshepsut

From the reign of Menes to the arrival of Alexander the Great over 2700 years later, only four women ever ruled Egypt. Three of these women ruled only for a brief period while a dynastic crisis was being solved. The reign of Hatshepsut, who ruled in her own right for a significant period of time, is unique in the history of ancient Egypt. Given the very masculine nature of Egyptian kings, the small number of women rulers is not surprising. The king was believed to be the son of the god Re, and was associated with male symbols such as the bull. The queen was seen as the daughter of Re and was associated with the vulture-goddess. Consequently, the offices of the king and queen were complementary yet fundamentally different. They were not interchangeable, so the reign of any woman in Pharaonic Egypt was a significant departure from tradition. 

      Historians have called Hatshepsut the first powerful female leader. When her husband Tuthmosis II died, Hatsheput became regent for her young stepson. Tuthmosis III. Rather than govern in his name until he was old enough to assume the throne, Hatshpsut declared herself the female king of Egypt. Statues and paintings often show Hatshepsut wearing a beard to symbolize her power. The reign of Egypt's most famous woman has been described as a period of peace, stability, and prosperity. During her reign, Hatshepsut expanded trade, sending a trading mission to the country of Punt on the Red Sea (likely today's Somalia) from which Egypt received ebony, ivory, and incense. Hatshepsut also embarked on an ambitious building program that included her own massive tomb at Deir al-Bahari, and two huge obelisks at the Great Temple of Karnack, near Luxor. After ruling for nearly fifteen years, Hatshepsut was succeeded by the stepson whom she had earlier deposed. It is unclear whether Tuthnosis III waited until stepmother's death to reclaim the throne, or deposed her. What is clear is that some time near the end of his reign, Tuthmosis III ordered the removal of all references to and images of Hatshepsut from many monument,s and the smashing of statues that depicted her as king. Interestingly, her earlier images as queen in female dress and adornments went untouched. Was this an act of revenge, or was it simply an attempt to erase the uncomfortable fact of a woman assuming the role of a male king?

Queen Hatshepsut's Funerary Temple.

This enormous temple complex was built during her reign ca. 1470 BCE.

Tuthmosis III

As a young boy, Tuthmosis III inherited the throne of Egypt from his father, but the real power lay in the hands of his stepmother, Hatshepsut. By the time he assumed control of the throne, Tuthmosis III was his mid to late twenties. It would appear that he made wise use of his early years, training in the military -- he has even been referred to as the "Napoleon of Egypt," because of his many military campaigns. Much of the wealth of the New Kingdom came from tribute paid by the people subjugated during Tuthmosis III's conquests. Evidence of the tremendous wealth generated by Tuthmosis's successful conquests can be seen in the burst of building activity, both public and private, that  occurred during this period.

Continuity in Egyptian Religious Traditions

      In attempting to understand Egyptian culture and society, no factor is more significant than religion. The Egyptians were a deeply religious people for whom the sacred and the secular were inseparable. Religion was an integral part of all aspects of Egyptian life. 

      A society whose existence is closely linked to nature often shows a special reverence for it. The religion of early Egypt had its roots in the worship of nature deities, and the first gods to arise were frequently represented in animal form. In time, ideas, resulting in an interesting mix of human bodies and animal attributes. 

Myths and Legends in Ancient Egypt

      Like the Mesopotamians before them, the Egyptians considered those responsible for creation the most important gods. This is the case with most creation stories. According to Egyptian mythology, the earth was created when a primeval hill, the first solid matter, emerged from the waters of chaos. This was a natural assumption for ancient Egyptians, as they often aw islands of mud appearing in the Nile, or existing areas becoming islands during the annual inundation (floods). Atum, the creator-god, simply emerged standing on the first hill that rose from the water. He was "the perfect one: and self-begotten. He then ejected from his being Shu, the air, and Tefenet, the moisture. Next, he separated the sky from the earth and Geb, the earth, and Nut, the sky, came into being. Geb and Nut then joined and had children: the gods Osiris, Isis, Seth, and Nephtys. This group of deities formed the first unit in the divine hierarchy of gods. 

      National gods began to emerge during the Middle Kingdom. The most significant of these was Amon, the local god of Thebes and favoured god of the Theban kings. The other deities common to the Egyptians were the gods of the dead, including Osiris, Anubis, Horus, and Thoth.

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The Middle Kindom

      The strong central government that had allowed Egypt to flourish, broke down at the end of the Old Kingdom period, as local and provincial officials became increasingly powerful. The resulting civil wars thrust Egypt into 150 years of anarchy, now referred to as the First Intermediate Period. By 2050 BCE, Egypt was reunited under Theban kings who would rule for the next 250 years. These monarchs initially ruled at Thebes and eventually moved their capital to Memphis. Theban supremacy was also reflected in the rise to national prominence of the god Amon. Amon had been a local Theban deity, but during the Middle Kingdom, he was merged with the Sun god Re to become Amon-Re, and Egyptian national god.
      Throughout the Middle Kingdom, the economic and political boundaries of Egypt were expanded. By encouraging social mobility through the promotion of members of the middle class, the rulers of the Middle Kingdom were able to curtail and ambitions of the local princes. As a result, Egypt experienced two centuries of peace and stability during which the nation prospered.

External Relations: The Hyksos Invasion 

      Egypt's success was to be punctured by the invasion of the Hyksos, a warlike people, most likely from the area of what is now Syria and Palestine. While the Egyptians were culturally equal or superior to any of the civilization of the Mediterranean, they lagged behind some in technological development. The Egyptian army, using copper weapons, was no match for the improved bows, horse-drawn chariots, and bronze weapons of the Hyksos. Although the method of conquest is uncertain, the superior technology of the Hyksos was surely a factor in their ability to take over the administration of Egypt. For 150 years, the Hyksos ruled Egypt using the existing infrastructure. In the end, the Egyptians came to master the new weapons, and drove the Hyksos out of Egypt. Egypt emerged for the Second Intermediate Period strengthened and revitalized.

The Role of Trade in Promoting Change

      By the time of the New Kingdom, Egypt was engaged in a vast trading network that centred on the Mediterranean Sea but reached as far as northern Europe, subtropical Africa, and the Near East. A dated to the fourteenth century BCE, has contributed greatly to our understanding of the cosmopolitan world of the late Bronze Age. The ship was discovered at Ulu Burun, off the coast of modern-day Turkey, by a Turkish sponge diver in 1982. The vessel was found to carry variety of items, including copper ingots from Cyprus, Mycenaean pottery from Greece, tin ingots from Asia Minor, amber beads from the Baltic, and glass and ivory from Syria. It is believed that ships such as this followed a circular pattern as they piled the waters of the Mediterranean. Setting out form Egypt, such a vessel would have traveled first to Syria and Palestine and then on to Cyprus, and Aegean Sea, and , occasionally, as far west as Sardinia, before heading back toward North Africa and Egypt.
      The interchange of such a variety of cultures had a far greater significance than the simple exchange of materiel goods. It was through trade that idea,s forms of artistic expression, technology, and building methods were spread. It is not surprising to find that the Egyptians owed much to the Mesopotamians for their concepts of mathematics and writing. Early Greek art and medicine owed a great deal to the Egyptians. The calendar we used today was derived from the Roman (Julian) calender, which was also borrowed from the Egyptians. Although Egypt was a conservative society in which change was slow, trade and the exchange of ideas ensured that Egyptian civilization did not remain completely static, but was always evolving.

Political Structures and Traditions

      Central to the development of Egypt's political institutions was the concept of the god-king. From relatively early in the history of ancient Egypt, the Pharaoh was believed to be the earthly embodiment of the god Horus, son of Osiris. To deny this would be to undercut the entire structure and basis of authority of Egyptian kings. The accepted partial divinity of the king allowed him to mediate between gods and people, perform the religious rituals central to Egyptian beliefs, and perhaps most importantly, to remain separate from his subjects and rule with divine right. Deriving power from the gods ensured considerable stability since there were few challengers to the king's authority, and the word of the king was seen to be divinely inspired. Despite the appearance of absolute power, the king was expected to rule over Egypt subject to Ma'at. Although pictured as a woman with ostrich feather, Ma'at was the goddess and symbol of the equilibrium of the universe. The king was expected to govern according to the principles of Ma'at, and to the precedents set by earlier kings. Kings attempting to alter society radically would be seen as destroying the equilibrium that was so important to the tradition-bound Egyptians; this could lead to a civil war or some other challenge to authority.

Succession

      To ensure the purest line of succession , a Pharaoh passed on the throne to the eldest son born of the Principal Queen, or Great Royal Wife. This was usually the eldest daughter of the previous king and, therefore, the sister of the ruling king. If the king and the Great Royal Wife had no son to inherit the throne, succession would pass to a son of a secondary wife, who would then legitimize his claim to the throne by marrying the Great Royal Daughter. This would be the daughter of the king and the Principal Queen, or, if they had no daughter, the Principal Queen herself -- the stepmother of the new king.
      The Pharaoh owned all the land of Egypt, the people, and their possessions. Any personal wealthy enjoyed by the Egyptian people was considered a result of the generosity of the king. Beneath the king was a hierarchy of government officials that advised him, enforced the laws, pleased to gods, oversaw the construction of the pyramids and oms, sought trade opportunities, and collected taxed. These civil servants were often rewarded well for their efforts, receiving grants of land and other valuable goods. Many top-ranking officials were quite wealthy and able to prepare fairly elaborate burial tombs for themselves.
      Among the most important of these government officials were the scribes who recorded the deeds of the Pharaohs, real or imagines and kept stock of supplies. The value of the scribes is reflected in the fact that, most often, a scribe filled the role of vizier, or prime minister to the king. The vizier served several important roles. First, and above all else, the viziers were the advisors to the king from whom they received their orders, and to whom they were directly responsible. Viziers were also responsible for overseeing the entire administration of government, and served as the head of the judiciary. Next to the king, the vizier was the most important government official in Egypt. Beneath the vizier, were a number of minor officials who collected taxed, supervised agriculture and the granaries, coordinated trading expeditions, oversaw the construction of public works (including the pyramids and later tombs of the Pharaohs), managed the justice system, and supervised matters of public health. by the time of the Old Kingdom, Egypt was already a complex, bureaucratic state in which a centralized government was vital to stability and prosperity.

Legal Traditions

      Egyptian law, like virtually all other areas of life, was governed by religious principles. The Egyptians believed that law was infused into the world by the gods at the time of creations. The goddess Ma'at personified the essential foundations of Egyptian law, which represented truth, righteousness, and justice. According to Ma'at, the goal of all people was to find and maintain the correct balance and order of the universe. This ideal seems to have been a central part of the lives of most Egyptians -- they were generally a very law-abiding people, who sought harmony and stability in their lives. As the head of the court of justice, the vizier was a priest of Ma'at, as were the officials who administered the judicial system.
      Generally, Egyptian laws were fair and humane compared with those of other ancient civilizations. They were also applied equally to all people, regardless of class or gender. The law emphasized protecting the family -- providing protection to children and wives, who could divorce their husbands or be guaranteed compensation should their husbands divorce them. The Egyptians had no codified body precedents (previous cases). Each Pharaoh strove to ensured that the laws applied were consistent with past practices.
      While the laws of Egypt were fair and equitably applied, punishments could often be quite severe. Two principles seem to have guided Egyptians in determining the appropriate punishment for a crime: that a severe punishment would act as a deterrent and that, in some cases, disgrace was more effective than death. Minor crimes were often punished with 100 lashes and forced labor in the mines and quarries. Escape attempts could lead to ears and noses being amputated. Men who raped a freeborn woman were castrated. Corrupt officials had their hands amputated, and those who released military secrets had their tongues cut out. For those who committed crimes punishable by death, there were several options for their execution. Some were devoured by crocodiles; those of high status were their parents had pieces of their flesh cut away, were placed on a bed of thorns, and burned alive. Parents who killed their children were forced to hold the dead child for three days and nights. Deserters from the army were publicly disgraced but could erase the humiliation by performing a courageous deed.

Economic Structure

      Ancient Egypt's economic system could best be described as a mixed system blending elements of a traditional economy, a market economy, and a command economy. Despite being a relatively simple economy based primarily on the annual production of staple foods, a complex system of trade developed. The Pharaoh retained absolute control over the means of production and the distribution of wealth. Egyptian prosperity and stability were dependent on abundant harvest and the ability to manage food supplied in order to survive years in which harvest declined. The abundance of good supplies -- not the size of the royal treasury -- was the measure of Egypt's wealth. Full granaries, plenty of wildlife and fish, and thriving herds were the signs of prosperous times. These were the images used in the tombs of the Pharaohs to illustrate the wealth of their reigns.
      Agricultural production was organized to provide a stable food supply for both the living and the dead. Any surplus was used in trade with neighboring peoples. An enormous amount of labor was needed to construct huge public works such as temples, royal tombs, and pyramids. Everyone could be asked to contribute to the Pharaoh's building projects, but officials, scribes, or artisans seldom were required to fulfill this role. Instead, the majority of labor came from Egypt's poor;this led to the creation of a class of serfs, who although not slaves, had little control over their own lives.
      Throughout nearly all of ancient Egypt, trade, both within the country and with neighbouring countries, was carried out through the barter system. Widespread use of coinage would not come until the time of the Romans. The Egyptians sold goods, paid salaries, collected taxes, and even paid interest on loans entirely through the exchange of goods. As trade became increasingly complex, they developed a refined system of barter, which used an arbitrary standard (initially wheat), against which all goods were measured and adjustments made when necessary. For example, a peasant wanting to purchase new pottery might offer some dried fish in exchange. If the potter demanded slightly more for the pottery than the fish, the difference could be made up with a small amount of wheat. After around 1580 BCE, the Egyptians used gold, silver, and copper as arbitrary standard, and introduced a system of weights and measures. Despite these developments, the use of coinage as a generally accepted medium of exchange would still be a thousand years away.
      Once of the features of ancient Egypt that contributed to the remarkable stability and continuity of the society was the passing of skilled trades from father to son. Few Egyptians grew up exploring a variety of career options. Instead, children would learn the trades of their parents, becoming skilled artisans who would then pass on the secrets of their trade to their children. Little is known about individual artisans, despite the numerous examples of fine sculpture, countless tomb paintings, and many impressive part, due to the system of production used in most trades. Artisans did not work independently; they were part of a team in a specialized workshop. Each item was produced in the workshop by several artisans who either worked together on the piece or passed it along the line. Complex works, such as furniture, were first designed by a master artisan, and then each part was crated and polished by other artisans before  completion. Similar organization was used in the building of monumental structures; master planners designed and supervised the building, while skilled artisans each contributed to the project by shaping building blocks, carving sculpture, or painting walls.

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The Old Kingdom

      Prior to 3100 BCE, Egypt was probably a collection of unorganized societies. Lower Egypt, or the Delta Kingdom, was ruled by a monarchy symbolized by the red crown; the white crown represented the power of Upper Egypt. The legendary King Menes is believed to have been the first to unite Egypt and wear the double crown symbolizing the unity of the two kingdoms. Between 3100 BCE and 2700 BCE, Menes and his heirs were able to consolidate their power and achieve absolute rule in Egypt. By the time of the Old Kingdom, the king was ruler of all of Egypt and considered a god. He was the supreme ruler of all affairs, secular and religious.

      The Old Kingdom reached its peak during the Fourth Dynasty ( a dynasty is a series of rulers belonging to the same family). By engaging in trade throughout much of the Mediterranean, and by mining copper in the Sinai Peninsula, the Egyptians acquired tremendous wealth in both material goods and new ideas. Timber from Syria, wine and oil from Crete, and the potter's wheel from Mesopotamian were all introduced to Egypt during the Old Kingdom. 

      The greatest symbols of the wealth of the Old Kingdom, however, were the three massive pyramids at Giza. Build between 2600 and 2500 BCE, these pyramids were the chief undertaking of the kings of the Fourth Dynasty -- Khufu (also known as Cheops), Khafre, and Menkure. To this day, these monumental structures stand as testimonials to the greatest of Egypt during the Old Kingdom. 

Imhotep: An Egyptian Genius

      Seldom were the lives and accomplishments of individuals other than Pharaohs recorded by the Egyptians. One worthy exception was Imhotep, a man whom historians have called a genius. Imhotep;s contributions to Egyptian society were so profound that he was essentially deified, and rose to serve at the right hand of the Pharaoh Djoser. Living during the reign of Djoser,in the Third Dynasty (ca. 2686-2613 BCE), the brilliant Imhotep was the first individual (non-ruler) whose life has been recorded and passed on through history. On a statue of Imhotep in the royal funeral complex, we see the extent of his titles and the roles he played. The inscription reads: "The Chancellor of the King of Lower Egypt, the first after the King of Upper Egypt, administrator of the great palace, hereditary lord, the High Priest of Heliopolis, Imhotep the builder, the sculptor, and the maker of stone vases."

      Evidently, Imhotep was all this and more. He was the founder of the Egyptian system of medicine -- highly regarded for hundreds of years as the best of the ancient world. He was also the architect who designed and supervised the construction of the word's first stone building, and the first pyramid (also made entirely of stone blocks). In fact, the Step Pyramid created by Imhotep for the Pharaoh Djoser was the embodiment of Egyptians religious beliefs -- it captured for eternity the majesty of Pharaonic Egypt. Imhotep;'s genius did not end with the creation of a huge and eternal tomb for the Pharaoh. Inside the tomb, Imhotep immortalized in stone every aspect of life within the royal palace at about 2650 BCE. From the furnishings of the palace and everyday goods such as straw baskets and metal pots, to the exploits of the Pharaoh, his family, and Imhotep himself, all were captured and frozen in time in carefully sculpted stone images. In the end, the Step Pyramid emerged as the first piece of monumental architecture created by an artist. Imhotep's vision was to create a tomb that use space and design to capture the essence of the life of a Pharaoh, not merely a place to hod his final remains.  

The Step Pyramids of Djoser, the first monumental architecture in Egypt, built ca. 2650 BCE. 

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Geography: Life on the Nile

The Nile Valley

There were several important geographic influences on Egyptian culture and civilization. The most important of these was the Nile River. The wealth of Egypt depended entirely on the water of the Nile, often referred to as the "gift of the Nile." Rainfall in the Nile Valley is negligible, and rainfall in the Nile Delta is only 100-200 mm per year. It was the flooding of the Nile upon which the fortunes of Egypt depended. 

      The waters of the Nile River come from the convergence of the White Nile and the Blue Nile. the Blue Nile, fed by the summer monsoons in Ethiopia, lead to the flooding of the Nile. This flooding occurs annually between July and October. The receding waters leave behind a rich alluvial soil, which makes the Nile River Valley a fertile and productive region. 

      Unlike other major rivers such as the Tigris and the Euphrates, which often underwent violent and unpredictable flooding, the Nile was usually a benevolent and predictable ally. The Egyptians were able to plan with some certainty the planting and harvesting of crops. If the water levels were higher than usual, however, serious damage could occur. Conversely, water levels that did not reach their usual heights could lead to drought and famine. The Nile was a force that the Egyptians both revered and feared. 

The Nile Delta and the Faiyum

      Aside from the Nile Valley, two other regions in Egypt were extensively cultivated  and settled. The area in which the Nile empties into the Mediterranean Sea is known as the Nile Delta. The Nile Delta is the largest area of fertile land in Egypt and, consequently, encompassed many of the major centres of ancient Egypt. Lake Moeris, which lies at the end of a branch of the Nile, is at the centre of an oasis known as the Faiyum. Through extensive irrigation, the ancient Egyptians were able to make the Faiyum the third largest area of settlement and agriculture in Egypt. 

Deserts and Egypt's Isolation

      Perhaps the greatest irony of Egypt is that the very lush and fertile Nile Valley is sandwiched between two inhospitable deserts, the Western Desert and the Eastern Desert. The isolation these desolate areas created protected Egypt from invasion, while also insulating Egyptians from outside influences. TI is hardly surprising that the civilization that developed was conservative and remarkable stable for most of its long history.

      The significance of the deserts went beyond their acting as a buffer against outside influences. They were important sources of minerals and building supplies, including copper, gold, tin, alabaster, limestone, amethyst, and matron, the drying agent used in the mummification process. 

The Mediterranean

      Another geographic feature that significantly shaped Egyptian history was the Mediterranean Sea, Egypt's major outlet for trade. The extensive trade routes that were established allowed Egypt to obtain a wide diversity of goods. Trade was also a key factor in the exchange of cultures. Once cannot help but notice the tremendous influence the Egyptians had on the architecture and art of the Greeks, especially the Minoans and Mycenaeans. 

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Gilgamesh and Enkidu: A Story of Epic Proportions

      Like all legends, the incredible story of Gilgamesh and Enkidu is built around a larger than life real personality. As in great epics, the saga has both historic and mythic elements. This legend has given historians, anthropologists and sociologists plenty to think about.
      Gilgamesh was a real king in Uruk in Babylonia and probably reigned about 2700 BCE. Many stories and myths surround him and endow him with beauty, strength, courage and an unsurpassed physical presence. Gilgamesh was said to be two-thirds divine and one-third human. He was revered for his accomplishments, yet his people complained and suffered under his overzealous leadership. Apparently, as king, Gilgamesh thought it was his right to control everything, even the right to sleep with any bride before the groom had a chance.
      The gods heard the people's moaning and so created Enkidu. Physically, he looked like Gilgamesh, but shorter and broader. Valiant and innocent, Enkidu lived among the animals before the people of Uruk discovered him. he was seduced into human contact by a temple courtesan and taught human ways. With his strength and good heart, Enkidu was seen as a good match for Gilgamesh, someone who could be a worthy companion and subdue the king's baser tendencies. Enkidu was taken to the home of a bride, where it was known Gilgamesh was to visit. Enkidu blocked the way and the two men wrestled and fought each other like bulls. Eventually, the fighting stopped. The two men embraced and began an epic friendship that would see them through several exciting and terrifying adventures.
      Unfortunately, in their exuberance, both Gilgamesh and Enkidu made the gods angry, and were punished by the killing of Enkidu, Humanized by his close relationship with Enkidu and grieving for his lost friend, Gilgamesh journeyed through the Underworld crying, "Death and life I wish to know".

Gilgamesh

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Mesopotamians' Science & Technology and Beliefs

Science and Technology

      Writing was only of the many advances credited to the ancient Mesopotamians. By developing a variety of tools and techniques, the Mesopotamians were the first to make a prosperous living based on large-scale agriculture. The earliest and, perhaps, most significant development came in the fourth millennium BCE, when a Sumerian crafter built the first known wheeled vehicle. The design, using solid wooden wheels, allowed oxen to pull three times as much weight as before. Aside from the use of wheeled vehicles, Mesopotamian farmers developed seeder-plows and pickaxes to make their work easier and more efficient. The Mesopotamians became talented bakers,brewers, weavers, and tanners. Some of their buildings, constructed of mud-brick and tile, were so well built that they survive today. 

Beliefs

      Mesopotamian religion is the oldest in the world for which written records exist. It was a polytheistic religion comprising some 3600 various gods and demigods. This vast number of deities reflects the diversity from region to region. Despite the differences in the representation of the gods and the varieties found in the local towns, all of Mesopotamia shared essentially the same religion. The five most prominent deities were Enlil, the supreme  god and god of the air, Ishtar, the mother goddess of fertility and life; An, the god of heaven; Enki, the god of the underworld and the water; and Shamash, the sun god and the giver of law. The names used here are Sumerian. Throughout Mesopotamian history, the names would change but the basic functions remained the same.

Ziggurats: Temples to the Gods

      According to the beliefs of the ancient Mesopotamians, it was vitally important that the gods be honored by religious ceremonies. These ceremonies were performed by the priests in sacred temples. Like most Mesopotamian architecture, temples were constructed of mud brick. Constant threat of flooding meant that the temples had to be placed on platforms. Over time, the temples evolved into the imposing structures known as ziggurats. This was a stack of platforms decreasing in size from bottom to top. The structure resembled the step pyramids of the Egyptians except that a small chapel sat on t top of the ziggurat. Ziggurats ranged from one to seven platforms and were decorated with painted stucco and colored, glazed bricks. To further enhance their appearance, the structures were often planted with flowers, shrubs. and trees. 

      One of the most famous ziggurats was the Tower of Babel. The original structure was destroyed and rebuilt several times. The final restoration was undertaken by Nebuchadnezzar, who hoped to raise the tower up to heaven. Once completed, the Tower of Babel was called one of the great wonders of the ancient world. This ziggurat's temple was perched almost 100 m above around. The base measured 91 m on each side and covered half a square kilometre. Surrounding the massive structure were storehouses and apartments for the priests who served the temple.  

The Ziggurat of Ur was built ca. 2000 BCE

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The People

      Mesopotamian  civilization was the product of a cross-fertilization of four distinct ethnocultural groups. The Sumerians, who arrived about 3000 BCE from central Asia, were the first to develop writing, and large social organizations. These would become the first cities of the world. Throughout the history of Mesopotamia, Semitic-speaking peoples arrived ca. 2600 BCE and the Amorites, ca. 2200 BCE. the third major cultural group to settle  in Mesopotamia were the Indo-Europeans, represented by the Luvians and the Hittites. These migrations took place around 2000 BCE. Finally, the Hurrians, who were a people from the Caucasus, in Asia, began migrating to Mesopotamia around 1800 BCE. The study of ancient Mesopotamia is the study of several distinct peoples who settled the area.

The Growth of The Empire

      For much of its history, Mesopotamia was a collection of independent states. Although Mesopotamia would eventually become unified, it occurred much alter than in neighboring Egypt. The early government of the towns and villages was democratic. An administrative bureaucracy was established to look after an increasingly complex society. The government built and maintained roads and canals, enforced laws, and settled disputes. As the towns grew and prospered, rivalries developed that led to intermittent wars. During times of war, many Mesopotamian villages found it necessary to appoint one of their strongest and ablest warriors to lead them to victory. The Sumerian title for king was lugal, meaning "big man." Although the appointment was initially temporary, the frequency of wars led to the decline of democratic government and the rise of a monarchical system in which kingship was hereditary and despotic.

Sumerian Society

      The Sumerians were the dominant culture in Mesopotamia between 2900 and 2400 BCE. Their society was divided into four main classes. The top class was the nobility, comprised of the king and his family, the chief priests, and the high palace officials. The king's prominent role in society was further enhanced when it was given a religious dimension. Although the king was never deified, kingship itself was believed to be one of the basic institutions of human life created by the gods. The power of the king was not derived from brute strength. It was divinely ordained. The king and other members of the nobility owned the most and best land.
      Those men and women who worked for the nobility in exchange for the use of the land were known as "free clients." These people were dependent on the nobility for their livelihood and were a major portion of Sumerian society. commoners were free citizens who owned their own land and were not dependent on the nobility. Among the group were those who produced and traded a wide range of goods. Talented artisans created beautiful goldwork, ceramic bowls, and even board games. Others were involved in the day-to-day administration of the empire, making sure that the land was properly irrigated, laws were followed and enforced, and taxed were collected. The fourth group in Sumerian society was the slave population.

The Akkadians

      The basic social, economic, and intellectual framework of Mesopotamia was established during the period of Sumerian domination. Despite repeated attempts to attain mastery over lower Mesopotamia, however, the Sumerians were never successful. Instead, the unification of lower Mesopotamia was accomplished by a Semitic chieftain named Sargon. After conquering the Sumerians in 2331 BCE, Sargon established his capital at Akkad, from which the Akkadians took their name. Sargon's greatest achievement was finally to unify Mesopotamia and spread Mesopotamian culture throughout the area known as the Fertile Crescent. The Fertile Crescent is a belt of rich farmland that stretches from Mesopotamia northeast to Syria and southwest to Egypt. The dynasty established by Sargon was short-lived; by 2200 BCE, the Akkadians fell to invading barbarians.

The Babylonians

      Mesopotamia was eventually reunited by another Semitic people known as the Babylonians. The Babylonians used their central location to dominate trade and, eventually, establish control over all of Mesopotamia. Guiding Babylon's rise was the talented King Hammurabi, who came to the throne ca. 1750 BCE. He established Babylon as the leading power in Mesopotamia by conquering Akkad and Assyria, gaining control of both the north and the south. The most lasting and famous element of Hammurabi's reign was his law code. This code was inscribed on a stone pillar set up in public for all to see. On the pillar, Hammurabi is depicted receiving his authority from the god Shamash. The laws of ancient Babylon were not only considered divinely inspired, but also were clearly written out to form a consistent body of laws.
      Hammurabi's laws tell us much about life in ancient Mesopotamia. The punishments were designed to fit the crimes. This code was the origin of the concept of an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth. For example, if a son struck his father, the son's hand was cut off; if someone were to break another's bone, they would have the same bone broken. The consequences of these laws, however, differed according to rank. Members of the nobility faced much more lenient penalties, often being required only to pay a fine.
      Despite the talents and efforts of Hammurabi, Mesopotamia was not to remain united for long. By 1550 BCE, the Babylonian kingdom was in decline and the unity of Mesopotamia was again crumbling.

The Assyrians 

      For the next seven hundred years, Mesopotamia experienced turmoil and uncertainty. The invasion of the warlike Hurrians was but one of the events that contributed to centuries of chaos. Finally, in the tenth century BCE, Assyria began to emerge as the dominant force. Led by Assurnasirpal II and drawing on the best army in the Near East, Assyria was able to reunite Mesopotamia and establish the first true empire the world had ever seen. Using boasts such as, "I built a pillar over against his city gate, and I flayed all the chief men... and I covered the pillar with their skins; some I walled up within the pillar, some I impaled upon the pillar on stakes... and I cut off the limbs of the officers," the Assyrians soon became the most feared army in the Near East. By the seventh century BCE, the Assyrians had established an empire stretching from the Persian Gulf north and west to Syria, Palestine, and Egypt. 

      The power of fear was insufficient to hold together the Assyrian Empire. The Assyrians overextended themselves and terrorized all that they had conquered. It was only a matter of time before the subject states rose up in revolt. The revolts began to occur in the late seventh century BCE, and by the end of the century, the collapse of the Assyrian Empire was complete. Although Babylon would later enjoy a short-lived resurgence, it too had passed its prime and was in decline. By 539 BCE, Mesopotamia had become a part of the vast Persian Empire, which stretched from the Indus River to the Mediterranean Sea. 

      The Persian leader Cyrus the Great replaced Assyrian rule by fear with tolerance and fairness. Differences in religion were accepted, taxed imposed on subject peoples were fair, and local officials were retained in the administration of the Persian Empire -- reporting to Persian governors called satraps. This benevolent rule brought stability to the Persian Empire, which would survive some 800 years before the Greeks under Alexander the Great conquered it.

      Many would say that the greatest contribution of Mesopotamia to western civilization was the invention of writing. Writing allowed the transmission of wisdom and knowledge, the codification of laws, and the keeping of records to facilitate trade. The earliest writing we have found dates to 3500 BCE and was discovered at the ancient Mesopotamian city of Uruk. 

      The written language of the Mesopotamians was developed by the Sumerians and is called cuneiform, which means "wedge-shaped." A scribe would record information by pressing a wedge-shaped stylus into a slab of soft clay. Other writing materials included stone and chisel, metal and chisel, and paint on glazed terracotta (red clay). Before the development of cuneiform script, written communication was in the form of pictograms. At this point, writing was used only for record keeping, and thus only concrete words (nouns) such as "ox," "grains," and "sheep" were needed. As society became more complex, the language evolved, enabling signs to be used to depict homonyms (words that sound the same and are spelled the same but mean different things e.g., "bow," "light") and, eventually, abstract thoughts. In time, the system of cuneiform writing spread to Persia and Egypt, and for centuries was the only international script. It was a great vehicle for the growth and spread of civilization and the exchange of ideas among cultures.

Writing: ECHOES from the Past published by McGraw-Hill Ryderson Ltd.